Microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 (mPGES-1)

Microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 (mPGES-1) or Prostaglandin E synthase is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PTGES gene.

• Jakobsson PJ, Thorén S, Morgenstern R, et al. (1989). “Identification of human prostaglandin E synthase: a microsomal glutathione-dependent, inducible enzyme, constituting a potential novel drug target”. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 96 (13): 7220–7225. Bibcode:1999PNAS…96.7220J. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.13.7220. PMC 22058. PMID 10377395.
• Hui-Hua Chang; Emmanuelle J Meuillet (2011). “Identification and development of mPGES-1 inhibitors: where we are at?”. Future Med Chem. 3 (15): 1909–1934. doi:10.4155/fmc.11.136. PMC 3232027. PMID 22023034.
• Polyak K, Xia Y, Zweier JL, Kinzler KW, Vogelstein B (Sep 1997). “A model for p53-induced apoptosis”. Nature. 389 (6648): 300–5. Bibcode:1997Natur.389..300P. doi:10.1038/38525. PMID 9305847. S2CID 4429638.
• Jakobsson PJ, Morgenstern R, Mancini J, Ford-Hutchinson A, Persson B (May 1999). “Common structural features of MAPEG — a widespread superfamily of membrane-associated proteins with highly divergent functions in eicosanoid and glutathione metabolism”. Protein Sci. 8 (3): 689–92. doi:10.1110/ps.8.3.689. PMC 2144274. PMID 10091672.
• “Entrez Gene: PTGES prostaglandin E synthase”.

The protein encoded by this gene is a glutathione-dependent prostaglandin E synthase. The expression of this gene has been shown to be induced by proinflammatory cytokine interleukin 1 beta (IL1B). Its expression can also be induced by tumor suppressor protein TP53, and may be involved in TP53-induced apoptosis.

Knockout studies in mice suggest that this gene may contribute to the pathogenesis of collagen-induced arthritis and mediate acute pain during inflammatory responses.

• “Entrez Gene: PTGES prostaglandin E synthase”.

Gold sodium thiomalate

Sodium aurothiomalate (INN, known in the United States as gold sodium thiomalate) is a gold compound that is used for its immunosuppressive anti-rheumatic effects. Along with an orally-administered gold salt, auranofin, it is one of only two gold compounds currently employed in modern medicine. Its precise mechanism of action is unknown but is known that it inhibits the synthesis of prostaglandins. It also modulates phagocytic cells and inhibits class II major histocompatibility complex-peptide interactions. It is also known that it inhibits the following enzymes:

• Acid phosphatase
• Beta-glucuronidase
• Elastase
• Cathepsin G
• Thrombin
• Microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1

• Jessop JD, O’Sullivan MM, Lewis PA, Williams LA, Camilleri JP, Plant MJ, Coles EC (September 1998). “A long-term five-year randomized controlled trial of hydroxychloroquine, sodium aurothiomalate, auranofin and penicillamine in the treatment of patients with rheumatoid arthritis”. British Journal of Rheumatology. 37 (9): 992–1002. doi:10.1093/rheumatology/37.9.992. PMID 9783766.
• Iqbal MS, Saeed M, Taqi SG (2008). “Erythrocyte membrane gold levels after treatment with auranofin and sodium aurothiomalate”. Biological Trace Element Research. 126 (1–3): 56–64. doi:10.1007/s12011-008-8184-x. PMID 18649049. S2CID 20169992.
• Kean WF, Kean IR (June 2008). “Clinical pharmacology of gold”. Inflammopharmacology. 16 (3): 112–25. doi:10.1007/s10787-007-0021-x. PMID 18523733. S2CID 808858.
• Berners-Price SJ, Filipovska A (September 2011). “Gold compounds as therapeutic agents for human diseases”. Metallomics. 3 (9): 863–73. doi:10.1039/c1mt00062d. PMID 21755088.
• Tuure L, Hämäläinen M, Moilanen T, Moilanen E (2014). “Aurothiomalate inhibits the expression of mPGES-1 in primary human chondrocytes”. Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology. 44 (1): 74–9. doi:10.3109/03009742.2014.927917. PMID 25314295. S2CID 5213201.

See also

• Prostaglandin E synthase

Prostaglandin E synthase (EC 5.3.99.3, or PGE synthase) is an enzyme involved in eicosanoid and glutathione metabolism, a member of MAPEG family. It generates prostaglandin E (PGE) from prostaglandin H2.

• Murakami M, Nakatani Y, Tanioka T, Kudo I (August 2002). “Prostaglandin E synthase”. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat. 68–69: 383–99. doi:10.1016/S0090-6980(02)00043-6. PMID 12432931. S2CID 22246484.
• Park JY, Pillinger MH, Abramson SB (June 2006). “Prostaglandin E2 synthesis and secretion: the role of PGE2 synthases”. Clin. Immunol. 119 (3): 229–40. doi:10.1016/j.clim.2006.01.016. PMID 16540375.

Prostaglandin E is a family of naturally occurring prostaglandins that are used as medications.

Types include:

• Prostaglandin E₁ also known as alprostadil
  • Prostaglandin E₁ (PGE₁) is a naturally occurring prostaglandin and is also used as a medication (alprostadil).In infants with congenital heart defects, it is delivered by slow injection into a vein to open the ductus arteriosus until surgery can be carried out. By injection into the penis or placement in the urethra, it is used to treat erectile dysfunction. Common side effects when given to babies include decreased breathing, fever, and low blood pressure. When injected into the penis for erectile dysfunction; side effects may include penile pain, bleeding at the site of injection, and prolonged erection (priapism). Prostaglandin E₁ is in the vasodilator family of medications. It works by opening blood vessels and relaxing smooth muscle. Prostaglandin E₁ was isolated in 1957 and approved for medical use in the United States in 1981. It is on the World Health Organization’s List of Essential Medicines.
  • Misoprostol is another synthetic prostaglandin E₁ analog used to prevent gastric ulcers when taken on a continuous basis, to treat missed miscarriage, to induce labor, and to induce abortion.
    • “FDA-sourced list of all drugs with black box warnings (Use Download Full Results and View Query links.)”. nctr-crs.fda.gov. FDA. Retrieved 22 October 2023.
    • “Alprostadil”. The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. Archived from the original on 16 January 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2017.
    • Northern Neonatal Network (208). Neonatal Formulary: Drug Use in Pregnancy and the First Year of Life (5 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 2010. ISBN 9780470750353. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017.
    • British National Formulary (BNF) (69th ed.). British Medical Association. 2015. p. 569. ISBN 9780857111562.
    • Sneader W (2005). Drug Discovery: A History. John Wiley & Sons. p. 185. ISBN 9780470015520. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017.
    • World Health Organization (2019). World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019. Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/325771. WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
    • Wu HL, Marwah S, Wang P, Wang QM, Chen XW (May 2017). “Misoprostol for medical treatment of missed abortion: a systematic review and network meta-analysis”. Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 1664. Bibcode:2017NatSR…7.1664W. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-01892-0. PMC 5431938. PMID 28490770.
    • Chatsis V, Frey N (2018). Misoprostol for Cervical Ripening and Induction of Labour: A Review of Clinical Effectiveness, Cost-Effectiveness and Guidelines. CADTH Rapid Response Reports. Ottawa (ON): Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health. PMID 30907996.
    • “Medical abortion”. Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
• Prostaglandin E₂ also known as dinoprostone
  • Prostaglandin E₂ (PGE2), also known as dinoprostone, is a naturally occurring prostaglandin with oxytocic properties that is used as a medication. Dinoprostone is used in labor induction, bleeding after delivery, termination of pregnancy, and in newborn babies to keep the ductus arteriosus open. In babies it is used in those with congenital heart defects until surgery can be carried out. It is also used to manage gestational trophoblastic disease. It may be used within the vagina or by injection into a vein. Dinoprostone has important effects in labor by inducing softening of the cervix and causing uterine contraction, and also stimulates osteoblasts to release factors that stimulate bone resorption by osteoclasts. Natural prostaglandins, including PGE1 and PGE2, are important in the structure and function of the ductus arteriosus in fetuses and newborns. They allow the ductus arteriosus to remain open, providing the necessary connection between the pulmonary artery and descending aorta that allows the blood to bypass the fetus’s underdeveloped lungs and be transported to the placenta for oxygenation. Prostaglandin E₂ was first synthesized in 1970 and approved for medical use by the FDA in the United States in 1977. It is on the World Health Organization’s List of Essential Medicines. Prostaglandin E₂ works as well as prostaglandin E1 in babies.
    • “Dinoprostone topical Use During Pregnancy”. Drugs.com. 17 December 2019. Retrieved 27 July 2020.
    • “Dinoprostone”. The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. Archived from the original on 16 January 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2017.
    • Shirley M (October 2018). “Dinoprostone Vaginal Insert: A Review in Cervical Ripening”. Drugs. 78 (15): 1615–1624. doi:10.1007/s40265-018-0995-2. PMID 30317521. S2CID 52978808.
    • Xi M, Gerriets V (2020). “Prostaglandin E2 (Dinoprostone)”. StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. PMID 31424863.
    • Northern Neonatal Network (208). Neonatal Formulary: Drug Use in Pregnancy and the First Year of Life (5 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 2010. ISBN 9780470750353. Archived from the original on 2017-01-13.
    • British national formulary : BNF 69 (69 ed.). British Medical Association. 2015. pp. 538–540. ISBN 9780857111562.
    • Hwa J, Martin K (2017). “Chapter 18: The Eicosanoids: Prostaglandins, Thromboxanes, Leukotrienes, & Related Compounds”. In Katzung BG (ed.). Basic & Clinical Pharmacology (14th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.
    • Smith WL, Urade Y, Jakobsson PJ (October 2011). “Enzymes of the cyclooxygenase pathways of prostanoid biosynthesis”. Chemical Reviews. 111 (10): 5821–65. doi:10.1021/cr2002992. PMC 3285496. PMID 21942677.
    • Hamilton R (2015). Tarascon Pocket Pharmacopoeia 2015 Deluxe Lab-Coat Edition. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 361. ISBN 9781284057560.
    • World Health Organization (2019). World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019. Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/325771. WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
    • “Dinoprostone”. PubChem. Retrieved 2020-07-27.
    • Sharma M, Sasikumar M, Karloopia SD, Shahi BN (April 2001). “Prostaglandins in Congential Heart Disease”. Medical Journal, Armed Forces India. 57 (2): 134–8. doi:10.1016/S0377-1237(01)80134-9. PMC 4925861. PMID 27407318.

Both types are on the World Health Organization’s List of Essential Medicines. Prostaglandin E play an important role in thermoregulation of the human brain. Decreased formation of prostaglandin E through inhibition of cyclooxygenase is the basis for the antipyretic of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).

Prostaglandin H₂ is a type of prostaglandin and a precursor for many other biologically significant molecules. It is synthesized from arachidonic acid in a reaction catalyzed by a cyclooxygenase enzyme. The conversion from Arachidonic acid to Prostaglandin H2 is a two step process. First, COX-1 catalyzes the addition of two free oxygens to form the 1,2-Dioxane bridge and a peroxide functional group to form Prostaglandin G2. Second, COX-2 reduces the peroxide functional group to a Secondary alcohol, forming Prostaglandin H2. Other peroxidases like Hydroquinone have been observed to reduce PGG2 to PGH2. PGH2 is unstable at room temperature, with a half life of 90-100 seconds, so it is often converted into a different prostaglandin.

• Wishart, David S.; Guo, An Chi; Oler, Eponine; Wang, Fel; Anjum, Afia; Peters, Harrison; Dizon, Raynard; Sayeeda, Zinat; Tian, Siyang; Lee, Brian L.; Berjanskii, Mark; Mah, Robert; Yamamoto, Mai; Jovel Castillo, Juan; Torres Calzada, Claudia; Hiebert Giesbrecht, Mickel; Lui, Vicki W.; Varshavi, Dorna; Varshavi, Dorsa; Allen, Dana; Arndt, David; Khetarpal, Nitya; Sivakumaran, Aadhavya; Harford, Karxena; Sanford, Selena; Yee, Kristen; Cao, Xuan; Budinsky, Zachary; Liigand, Jaanus; Zhang, Lun; Zheng, Jiamin; Mandal, Rupasri; Karu, Naama; Dambrova, Maija; Schiöth, Helgi B.; Gautam, Vasuk. “Showing metabocard for Prostaglandin H2 (HMDB0001381)”. Human Metabolome Database, HMDB. 5.0.
• van der Donk WA, Tsai AL, Kulmacz RJ (December 2002). “The cyclooxygenase reaction mechanism”. Biochemistry. 41 (52): 15451–8. doi:10.1021/bi026938h. PMID 12501173.
• Salomon RG, Miller DB, Zagorski MG, Coughlin DJ (October 1984). “Prostaglandin endoperoxides. 14. Solvent-induced fragmentation of prostaglandin endoperoxides. New aldehyde products from PGH2 and a novel intramolecular 1,2-hydride shift during endoperoxide fragmentation in aqueous solution”. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 106 (20): 6049–6060. doi:10.1021/ja00332a049. ISSN 0002-7863.
• Hla T, Neilson K (August 1992). “Human cyclooxygenase-2 cDNA”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 89 (16): 7384–8. Bibcode:1992PNAS…89.7384H. doi:10.1073/pnas.89.16.7384. PMC 49714. PMID 1380156.

It is acted upon by:

• Prostacyclin synthase to create prostacyclin
• Thromboxane-A synthase to create thromboxane A2 and 12-(S)-hydroxy-5Z,8E,10E-heptadecatrienoic acid (HHT) (see 12-Hydroxyheptadecatrienoic acid)
• Prostaglandin D2 synthase to create prostaglandin D2
• Prostaglandin E synthase to create prostaglandin E2

It rearranges non-enzymatically to:

• A mixture of 12-(S)-hydroxy-5Z,8E,10E-heptadecatrienoic acid (HHT) and 12-(S)-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,10E-heptadecatrienoic acid (see 12-Hydroxyheptadecatrienoic acid)
  • 12-Hydroxyheptadecatrienoic acid (also termed 12-HHT, 12(S)-hydroxyheptadeca-5Z,8E,10E-trienoic acid, or 12(S)-HHTrE) is a 17 carbon metabolite of the 20 carbon polyunsaturated fatty acid, arachidonic acid. It was discovered and structurally defined in 1973 by P. Wlodawer, Bengt I. Samuelsson, and M. Hamberg, as a product of arachidonic acid metabolism made by microsomes (i.e. endoplasmic reticulum) isolated from sheep seminal vesicle glands and by intact human platelets.
    • Wlodawer, P; Samuelsson, B (1973). “On the organization and mechanism of prostaglandin synthetase”. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 248 (16): 5673–8. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(19)43558-8. PMID 4723909.
    • Hamberg, M; Samuelsson, B (1974). “Prostaglandin endoperoxides. Novel transformations of arachidonic acid in human platelets”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 71 (9): 3400–4. Bibcode:1974PNAS…71.3400H. doi:10.1073/pnas.71.9.3400. PMC 433780. PMID 4215079.

Use of prostaglandin H₂:

• regulating the constriction and dilation of blood vessels
• stimulating platelet aggregation
  • binds to Thromboxane receptor on platelets’ cell membranes to trigger platelet migration and adhesion to other platelets.
    • Woodward DF, Jones RL, Narumiya S (September 2011). “International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. LXXXIII: classification of prostanoid receptors, updating 15 years of progress”. Pharmacological Reviews. 63 (3): 471–538. doi:10.1124/pr.110.003517. PMID 21752876.

Effects of Aspirin on prostaglandin H₂:

• Aspirin has been hypothesized to block the conversion of arachidonic acid to prostaglandin

The synthase generating PGE2 is a membrane-associated protein.

Isozymes

Humans express three prostaglandin-E synthase isozymes, each encoded by a separate gene:

• prostaglandin E synthase (microsomal)
• prostaglandin E synthase 2 (microsomal)
• prostaglandin E synthase 3 (cytosolic)
  • Prostaglandin E synthase 3 (cytosolic) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PTGES3 gene. The protein encoded by this gene is also known as p23 which functions as a chaperone which is required for proper functioning of the glucocorticoid and other steroid receptors.
    • “Entrez Gene: PTGES3 Prostaglandin E synthase 3 (cytosolic)”.
    • Freeman BC, Yamamoto KR (June 2002). “Disassembly of transcriptional regulatory complexes by molecular chaperones”. Science. 296 (5576): 2232–2235. doi:10.1126/science.1073051. PMID 12077419. S2CID 8844179.

References

1.  GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000148344 – Ensembl, May 2017
2.  GRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ENSMUSG00000050737 – Ensembl, May 2017
3. “Human PubMed Reference:”. National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
4. “Mouse PubMed Reference:”. National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
5. Jakobsson PJ, Thorén S, Morgenstern R, et al. (1989). “Identification of human prostaglandin E synthase: a microsomal glutathione-dependent, inducible enzyme, constituting a potential novel drug target”. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 96 (13): 7220–7225. Bibcode:1999PNAS…96.7220J. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.13.7220. PMC 22058. PMID 10377395.
6. Hui-Hua Chang; Emmanuelle J Meuillet (2011). “Identification and development of mPGES-1 inhibitors: where we are at?”. Future Med Chem. 3 (15): 1909–1934. doi:10.4155/fmc.11.136. PMC 3232027. PMID 22023034.
7. Polyak K, Xia Y, Zweier JL, Kinzler KW, Vogelstein B (Sep 1997). “A model for p53-induced apoptosis”. Nature. 389 (6648): 300–5. Bibcode:1997Natur.389..300P. doi:10.1038/38525. PMID 9305847. S2CID 4429638.
8. Jakobsson PJ, Morgenstern R, Mancini J, Ford-Hutchinson A, Persson B (May 1999). “Common structural features of MAPEG — a widespread superfamily of membrane-associated proteins with highly divergent functions in eicosanoid and glutathione metabolism”. Protein Sci. 8 (3): 689–92. doi:10.1110/ps.8.3.689. PMC 2144274. PMID 10091672.
9. “Entrez Gene: PTGES prostaglandin E synthase”.
10. Jegerschold, C.; Pawelzik, S. -C.; Purhonen, P.; Bhakat, P.; Gheorghe, K. R.; Gyobu, N.; Mitsuoka, K.; Morgenstern, R.; Jakobsson, P. -J.; Hebert, H. (2008). “Structural basis for induced formation of the inflammatory mediator prostaglandin E2”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (32): 11110–11115. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10511110J. doi:10.1073/pnas.0802894105. PMC 2516235. PMID 18682561.
11. Murakami M, Nakatani Y, Tanioka T, Kudo I (August 2002). “Prostaglandin E synthase”. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat. 68–69: 383–99. doi:10.1016/S0090-6980(02)00043-6. PMID 12432931. S2CID 22246484.
12. Park JY, Pillinger MH, Abramson SB (June 2006). “Prostaglandin E2 synthesis and secretion: the role of PGE2 synthases”. Clin. Immunol. 119 (3): 229–40. doi:10.1016/j.clim.2006.01.016. PMID 16540375.

External links

• prostaglandin-E+synthase at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
• EC 5.3.99.3

Metabolism: lipid metabolism – eicosanoid metabolism enzymes

Prostanoid signaling modulators

Isomerases: intramolecular oxidoreductases (EC 5.3)

Enzymes

Drugs for erectile dysfunction (G04BE) and premature ejaculation

Eicosanoids

Prostanoid signaling modulators

Portal:

•  Biology

Categories: 

• Genes on human chromosome 9
• Genes on human chromosome 12
• EC 5.3.99
• Enzyme stubs

• This page was last edited on 26 August 2023, at 15:33 (UTC).

Further reading

• Bastien L, Sawyer N, Grygorczyk R, et al. (1994). “Cloning, functional expression, and characterization of the human prostaglandin E2 receptor EP2 subtype”. J. Biol. Chem. 269 (16): 11873–7. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(17)32654-6. PMID 8163486.
• Wu T, Wu H, Wang J, Wang J (2011). “Expression and cellular localization of cyclooxygenases and prostaglandin E synthases in the hemorrhagic brain”. J Neuroinflammation. 8: 22. doi:10.1186/1742-2094-8-22. PMC 3062590. PMID 21385433.
• Funk CD, Furci L, FitzGerald GA, et al. (1994). “Cloning and expression of a cDNA for the human prostaglandin E receptor EP1 subtype”. J. Biol. Chem. 268 (35): 26767–72. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(19)74379-8. PMID 8253813.
• Giacomini E, Giordani L, di Modugno F, et al. (1998). “Increased PGE2 production mediates the in vitro inhibitory effect of the human immunodeficiency virus P24 immunosuppressive heptapeptide Ch7”. Scand. J. Immunol. 48 (3): 248–53. doi:10.1046/j.1365-3083.1998.00389.x. PMID 9743208. S2CID 20332912.
• Jakobsson PJ, Thorén S, Morgenstern R, Samuelsson B (1999). “Identification of human prostaglandin E synthase: a microsomal, glutathione-dependent, inducible enzyme, constituting a potential novel drug target”. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96 (13): 7220–5. Bibcode:1999PNAS…96.7220J. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.13.7220. PMC 22058. PMID 10377395.
• Forsberg L, Leeb L, Thorén S, et al. (2000). “Human glutathione dependent prostaglandin E synthase: gene structure and regulation”. FEBS Lett. 471 (1): 78–82. doi:10.1016/S0014-5793(00)01367-3. PMID 10760517. S2CID 10901322.
• Han R, Smith TJ (2002). “Cytoplasmic prostaglandin E2 synthase is dominantly expressed in cultured KAT-50 thyrocytes, cells that express constitutive prostaglandin-endoperoxide H synthase-2. Basis for low protaglandin E2 production”. J. Biol. Chem. 277 (39): 36897–903. doi:10.1074/jbc.M206949200. PMID 12145315.
• Giannoulias D, Alfaidy N, Holloway AC, et al. (2002). “Expression of prostaglandin I(2) synthase, but not prostaglandin E synthase, changes in myometrium of women at term pregnancy”. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 87 (11): 5274–82. doi:10.1210/jc.2002-020521. PMID 12414902.
• Ouellet M, Falgueyret JP, Ear PH, et al. (2003). “Purification and characterization of recombinant microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1”. Protein Expr. Purif. 26 (3): 489–95. doi:10.1016/S1046-5928(02)00566-1. PMID 12460774.
• Strausberg RL, Feingold EA, Grouse LH, et al. (2003). “Generation and initial analysis of more than 15,000 full-length human and mouse cDNA sequences”. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 99 (26): 16899–903. Bibcode:2002PNAS…9916899M. doi:10.1073/pnas.242603899. PMC 139241. PMID 12477932.
• Uracz W, Uracz D, Olszanecki R, Gryglewski RJ (2003). “Interleukin 1beta induces functional prostaglandin E synthase in cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells”. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 53 (4 Pt 1): 643–54. PMID 12512699.
• Meadows JW, Eis AL, Brockman DE, Myatt L (2003). “Expression and localization of prostaglandin E synthase isoforms in human fetal membranes in term and preterm labor”. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 88 (1): 433–9. doi:10.1210/jc.2002-021061. PMID 12519887.
• Kamei D, Murakami M, Nakatani Y, et al. (2003). “Potential role of microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 in tumorigenesis”. J. Biol. Chem. 278 (21): 19396–405. doi:10.1074/jbc.M213290200. PMID 12626523.
• Jakobsson PJ, Thorén S, Morgenstern R, Samuelsson B (2003). “Characterization of Microsomal, Glutathione Dependent Prostaglandin e Synthase”. Eicosanoids and Other Bioactive Lipids in Cancer, Inflammation, and Radiation Injury, 5. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 507. pp. 287–91. doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-0193-0_44. ISBN 978-0-306-47283-1. PMID 12664599.
• Thorén S, Weinander R, Saha S, et al. (2003). “Human microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1: purification, functional characterization, and projection structure determination”. J. Biol. Chem. 278 (25): 22199–209. doi:10.1074/jbc.M303227200. PMID 12672824.
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